Tenses

11: The tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event.
v Simple present tense: shows an action which is performed regularly or habitually.
Structure: Subject + Verb + Complement or S+ V + C.
(Ex: The school opens at eight O? clock, they go to zoo on Monday, she writes home work at nine O? clock, etc).
 Present continuous tense: shows an action, which isv going on at the time of speaking, or right now.
Structure: S + to be + V-ing + C.
(Ex: she is reading a book now, he is speaking on the telephone at the moment, they are working)
 Present Perfect tense: shows an action whichv started in the past and finished in unspecific time.
Structure: S + have/ has + V3 + C.
(Ex: He has just gone out; they have finished their final test, etc)
Note: the present perfect tense is never used with adverbs of past time.
(Ex: We should not say, ?He has gone to Herat yesterday.? In such cases the past tense should be used, ?He went to Herat yesterday?.
 Presentv perfect continuous: shows an action which began at some time in the past and it is still continuing.
Structure: S+ have/has+ V-ing+C
(Ex: He has been sleeping for five hours. They have been playing cards since four O? clock.)
v Simple past tense: is used to indicate an action started in the past and completed in specific time in the past.
Structure: S+ V2+ C
(Ex: I received his letter a week ago. They met me yesterday. She left school last year.)
The Simple past tense is also used for past habits; as:
(He studied many hours every day. She always carried an umbrella.)
 Pastv continuous Tense: is used to denote an action which was going on at the some time in the past when an other action happened.
Structure: S+ was/were+ Ving + C
(Ex: While I was crossing the road, two cars crashed. They were playing football.
(When she was talking on the phone, her father entered to her room.)
 Past perfect tense: describes an action completed before a certainv moment in the past.
Structure: S+ Had+ V3 + C.
(Ex: The patient had died when the doctor came. My parents had already eaten by the time I got home.)
Note: If two action happened in the past, it may be necessary show which action happened earlier than the other. The past perfect is mainly used in such situation. The simple past in one clause and the past perfect in the other.
 Past perfect continuous tense: is used to emphasize the duration ofv an action in the past happened before an other action in the past.
Structure: S+ had + been + ving+ C.
(Ex: The police had been looking for the criminal for two years before they caught him.)
(Ex: The patient had been waiting in the emergency room for almost an hour before a doctor treated him.)
 Simplev future tense: is used for an action that will take place in the future.
Structure: S + will/shall+ V+ C.
(Ex: I shall see him tomorrow. Tomorrow will be Sunday. He will finish his work tomorrow.)
Note: The Simple future tense generally express pure or colorless future. When the future is colored with intention, the going to+ infinitive construction should be preferred.
(Ex: He is going to color his new house. I am going to buy a car.)
 Future continuous tense: express an action that will be going on inv at a time in the future.
Structure: S+ will/shall+ be + v-ing+ C.
(Ex: I will be reading an English book, when I get home. My children will be playing in the yard.)
This tense is also used for future events that are planned:
(Ex: I will be staying here still Sunday. I will stay here still Sunday.)
 Future perfect tense: express an activity that will be completedv before another time or event in the future.
Structure: S +will/shall+ have + V3 + C.
(Ex: By the next time I see you; I will have graduated from I.R.C English course.)
(Ex: I will have finished my homework by the time I go home.
 Future perfect continuous tense: emphasize the duration of anv activity that will be in progress before another time or event in the future.
Structure: S+ will/shall+ have + been+ Ving + C.
(Ex: I will go to bed at ten P.M. My brother will get home at midnight. At midnight I will be sleeping.
I will have been sleeping for two hours by the time he gets home.)
(When he gets his degree, he will have been studying at Oxford for four years.)

12: kinds of noun:
?Common noun? ?proper noun? ?collective noun? ?abstract noun?
 A common noun: is the name given inv common to every person, place or thing of same kind or class.
(Ex: Man, woman, door, class, room, kitchen, park, etc.)
 A proper noun: is the namev of some particular person or place and always begins with capital letter.
(Ex: Abdul Habib, Nader Shah Agha, Kandahar, Afghanistan, etc)
 Av collective noun: is the name of number person or thing taken together and spoken of as one whole or collective noun is the name that the form is singular and the meaning is plural.
(Ex: Group, flack, army, team, etc.)
 An abstractv noun: is the name of some quality, action and state.
Abstract noun of quality: (Ex: Goodness, Kindness, honesty, bravery, dearness, etc,)
Abstract noun of action: (Ex: Moment, laughter, theft, etc.)
Abstract noun of state: (Ex: youth, death, childhood, sickness, poverty, etc)

13: Plural Nouns:
 Plural of regular nouns:v
We change singular regular nouns in to their plural forms nouns by adding (s) or (es) at the end.
Noun_ _ _ _ _nouns boy_ _ _ _ boys fly_ _ _ _ flies
Note: nouns ending in (y) and having a consonant before (y) is changed in to (i) and (es) is added in the plural form.
Note: nouns ending in s, o, sh, ch, x, or z are pluralized by (es) and (es) is pronounced as (ez).
 Plural of irregular nouns:v
We change singular irregular nouns into their plural forms in different way from adding (s) or (es) at the end.
Ex: child_ _ _ children person_ _ _ people man_ _ _ men foot_ _ _feet

14: Number/ Numeral Noun:
It is used for counting a noun or pronoun. It has two kinds.
 Cardinal (Basic) Numbers. Is used to give thev exact number of some thing.
Ex: One. Two. Three. Four. Five etc.
 Ordinalv Numbers: Is used to put some thing in order.
Ex: first, second, third, fourth, fifth etc.

15: kinds of pronouns:
 Personal pronounv
v Relative pronoun
 Interrogative pronounv
 Demonstrative pronounv
v Distributive pronoun
 Indefinite pronounv
 Refvlexive pronoun
v Emphatic pronoun

 Personal pronoun: The pronoun which are used insteadØ of person are called personal pronoun.

Ex: Subject pronoun Object pronoun possessive pronoun possessive adjective
I Me Mine My
He Him His His
She Her Hers Her
It It Its Its
They Them Theirs Their
We Us Ours Our
You You Yours Your
 Relative pronoun: A relative pronoun is a wordØ that does the work of a conjunction as well as a pronoun
(Ex: who, whose, which, whom, that.)
Ex: I saw Ahmad. Ahmad is my partner. (I saw Ahmad who is my partner.)
He bought a book. the book has good stories. (He bought a book which has good stories)
 Interrogative pronoun: the pronoun which are usedØ for asking question are called interrogative pronoun.
(Ex: who, whose, what, which, when, where, why, how.)
 Demonstrative pronoun: demonstrative pronounØ points out or shows to something in a sentence.
(Ex: This, that, these, those.)
 Distributive pronoun: Distributive pronoun is a word which refersØ or points out to persons or things one at time.
(Ex: Neither, either, each, every, etc.)
 Indefinite pronoun: Indefinite pronoun refers to person (orØ persons) or thing (or things) in general way.
(Ex: something, some body, some one, anything, any body, nothing, no one)
 Reflexive pronoun: A reflexiveØ pronoun is a word which refers to the subject in a sentence.
(Ex: Myself. Himself, herself, themselves, ourselves, yourselves, yours selves.)
Ø Emphatic pronoun: it is used to emphasize on the action of the subject.
Note: it is immediately used after subject.
(My self, your self, him self, her self, it self, our selves, them selves, your selves)

16: Compound Noun:
The combination of two nouns the first noun functions as adjective.
Ex: telephone operator.

17: regularity of adjective:
The adjective that the comparative and superlative degrees are mad by (Er, Est, more, and most) is called regular adjective.
Those adjective which not mad by (Er, Est, more, and most) is called irregular adjective.
Like: Good, better, best, Bad, worse, worst, Far, Farther, farthest.

18: kinds of verb:
There are two kinds of verb: Transitive and Intransitive verbs:
 Av transitive verb is a verb which needs an object in a sentence.
(Ex: Cut, Build, Make, Sell, Use, Wear, Catch, Break, etc.)
An intransitive verb is a verb which doesn?t need an object.
(Ex: Appear, die, walk, go, run, happen, live, occur, remind, ache, smile, etc.)
Note: how can we differentiate transitive and intransitive verbs?
We put (what, who) immediately after verb if the verb accepts one of them it is called transitive.

19: regularity of verb:
verbs also divided into classes according to the manner in which they form the past tense from the present tense. These classes are called regular or weak verbs and irregular or strong verbs.
 Regular or weak verbsv are those verbs which we can add (d or ed) with second and third form of theme.
(EX: believe, believed, divide, divided, call, called, kill, killed etc.)
 Irregular or strong verbs are those verb which we can?t add (d or ed)v with second and third form of theme.
(Ex: Speak, spoke, spoken, tell, told, told, write, wrote, written etc,)

20: phrasal verb:
the combination of verb whit adverb or preposition which gives complete meaning is called phrasal verb
(EX; shut up, run into, come along with, eat out, fill in, fill out etc.)
Phrasal verb has two kinds.
 Separable: are those phrasal verbsv which can be separated.
Ex: turn off, turn on, bring back.
 In separable:v are those phrasals which can?t be separated.
Ex: sit down, come back

21: linking verb:
Shows the relation of subject with the rest part of the sentence.
Ex: smell, look, sound, seem, teats.
I sound good.

22: Auxiliary verb: are those verbs which don?t have particular meaning but they are used for making changes in a sentence.
Ex: He is a boy.